What Percentage Of Africa's Animals Die Due To Hunting

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Evolution of the wildlife resource in Africa

THANK RINEY

THANE RINEY was a fellow member of the squad which, financed under the United nations Expanded Programme of Technical Help, undertook a survey of wild fauna resources in Africa over 1962/63 as a special FAO/IUCN project. He is now serving with FAO's Forestry and Forest Products Partitioning in Rome.

A word of priority needs for international help

ONE OF THE objectives of the FAO/IUCN African Special Project was to consider priorities for external aid to develop wild fauna as an African natural resources. The increasing demand to develop the value of African wild animals was featured at meetings of the International Marriage for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) at Athens in 1958, at Warsaw in 1960, at the Arusha Conference in 1961, and at the Nairobi technical meetings in 1963. The nowadays paper confirms that this is an appropriate emphasis.

Types of wildlife utilization

Utilization of wild fauna on an African-wide basis involves several distinct types of use. Each type occurs within several different social and economic backgrounds and each type is increasing annually in importance. These are:

i. hunting for meat both past hunting tribes or members of agronomical or semi-agricultural tribes, the animals providing meat and skins for the local people;

ii. hunting for bays or for sport;

iii. protection of animals in parks and reserves as attractions tourists pay to see and relish and photograph;

4. commercial use of animals and fauna products, specifically the sale of

(a) meat
(b) skins and other trophies,
(c) musk or some combination of (a) and (b);

five. capturing and selling live animals.

With the exception of traditional hunting these types of utilization are in some early on phase of development, and the stages of development differ with dissimilar types of utilization and in different parts of Africa. The nowadays paper emphasizes the major bug now retarding the evolution of each type of utilization and suggests appropriate inquiry, demonstration and training projects for consideration by those organizations outside Africa that want to help advance the evolution of the value of wildlife resource in Africa.

The major issues and their suggested remedies are briefly outlined below.

Traditional hunting for meat, and wildlife organizations

Traditional hunting for meat is the earliest and the simplest class of utilization of wildlife by Africans merely nevertheless it remains i of the most important, as traditional hunting occurs over the greater part of Africa south of the Sahara.

Since little is known of its effects on animals, traditional hunting and its influence on mammal populations should be investigated in some surface area picayune influenced by the demands from commercial markets. Suitable areas exist in Ghana, Uganda, Dahomey, Republic of zambia, Bechuanaland and several other countries. Of these, the Central African Republic, Ghana and Uganda are suggested as the most appropriate countries for such a study.

The efforts of a small team of men studying the effects of traditional hunting on large mammals in Uganda could be expected to make an important preliminary contribution in ane year, only to obtain a national perspective would fully occupy at to the lowest degree three years.

A few countries still without an organization responsible for wildlife find themselves in the position where well-nigh of the involvement in wildlife is by traditional hunting, while the resource has become increasingly threatened in recent years attributable to ameliorate transportation and weapons, and an increase in the market for animal skins. The urgent requirement in these countries is for administrators to obtain help ir forming wild animals departments whose activities are based on appropriate legislation and, initially, simplified systems of protection and public relations. The study of an practiced assigned to this blazon of chore would have wide awarding in other parts of Africa. Somalia and Republic of mali exemplify countries needing help at this basic level.

Bays hunting

The concern of sport hunting for trophies tin exist an extremely assisting undertaking. Yet, lack of knowledge of the proportion of the existing mammal populations that can be safely taken by trophy hunters is widespread. There is little question but that in many parts of Africa the numbers of permissible trophies could be considerably increased but, until appropriate demonstration studies are made, game departments must remain conservative in granting licences.

It is suggested that a demonstration study to help this type of wildlife utilization would exist almost useful if its terms of reference included the following:

one. In an area regularly used for tourist hunting (Republic of kenya is an excellent instance) population studies should be made in sufficient particular to evaluate the effect of the present rate of removal of animals from hunted populations.

two. Recommendations should then exist made regarding safe levels of cropping within the study surface area.

iii. Every attempt should be made to extend the terms of reference to include the development of simplified techniques for use by local wardens to check annually on trends in animal numbers so that appropriate adjustments in hunting "bag limits" can be made as circumstances require.

Protection of animals in parks and reserves

The protection of animals in parks and reserves as attractions tourists pay to see and photograph is a facet of African wildlife utilization that has get a major revenue earner in some African countries, add in certain areas wildlife is second simply to agriculture in value. In spite of its comparatively advanced phase of development every bit a form of wild animals utilization, a major problem threatens the future of virtually of the parks and reserves visited in the grade of the African Special Project Survey. The trouble is 1 of learning appropriate techniques for managing large areas to achieve the permanent protection of the chief tourist attractions, the large mammals. There is skilful prove that at to the lowest degree in several of the oldest national parks serious troubles are arising from overpopulation of certain species and from gradual decline in other species, both effects due to past direction procedures.

Information technology is hither suggested that a major contribution to developing and ensuring the stability of this blazon of wildlife utilization should involve help with the preparation of specific management plans for the diverse types of protected areas that feature large mammals. Parks and reserves throughout Africa differ widely with respect to their nowadays stage of evolution and specific objectives and, unfortunately, at that place are non enough appropriate plans in existence to circulate widely equally examples. It is suggested that international help in this connectedness could exist of the greatest value if a serial of parks were selected for demonstration surveys, each survey to produce a management programme. The parks should be selected to represent the range of unlike stages of development and different types of park throughout Africa.

FIGURE ane. - The drama and dazzler of an American safari are an unforgettable experience for thousands of visitors each yr. Income from tourists emphasizes the importance of safeguarding and managing the animal resource and the complex environment that sustains it.

FIGURE ii. - Research beingness carried out in a Rhodesian museum to develop ageing criteria to observe out how many animals can be removed annually without causing a decline in the animal population.

Suggested every bit appropriate for including in such a series are "Due west" national park, including parts of Dahomey, Upper Volta and Niger; Yankari game reserve, Nigeria; Oryx-Addax reserve, due north of Abeche, Republic of chad; Chobe game reserve, Bechuanaland; Nairobi national park, Kenya; and Kafue national park, Zambia. Direction plans for each of these parks would contribute a segment of understanding that, when compared with the others and with those few plans already in beingness, would brand a major contribution to the sensible direction of African wild fauna parks and reserves.

Commercial utilize of animals and animal products, mainly for meat, skins and trophies

Although most countries are in the early stages of developing this class of utilise, on an African-wide basis commercial utilization has been effectively demonstrated both in areas where a tribal system is notwithstanding characteristic, and in about completely "westernized" countries such as parts of Southward Africa and Southern Rhodesia.

It is evident, notwithstanding, that nosotros must know more of the animals and their habitats to reach maximum annual harvests on a permanent ground. The productivity of the veld adapted African species, singly or as groups of species, is already favorably competing with domestic pastoral economies. This is true fifty-fifty with our present unmeant techniques, which are ultraconservative through ignorance and the fear of overexploitation.

In a large area of southern Africa, although it is known that several wild species which are existence commercially harvested tin can sustain almanac harvests of twenty percentage or more, cropping has been kept to about 10 percent of the population. Under this safe margin the populations are increasing and conservation requirements for soil and vegetation are existence maintained (Riney and Ketlitz, 1964).

Delays in the development of commercial utilization of wild animals are of several types equally would exist expected from the diversity of commercial operations already started and because of dissimilar social and economic backgrounds for this phase of wildlife development. The virtually important problems of the moment are:

(a) marketing;

(b) improving the techniques for producing a salable good for you production;

(c) conflicts with other forms of land use, especially the extent to which there is commutation of communicable illness between wild fauna and cattle.

Marketing

Information technology is suggested that, as an initial step, at least one and preferably two marketing experts engage in a one-twelvemonth survey to obtain an Africa-broad perspective of game-marketing procedures, and to brand appropriate recommendations for farther improvements. The terms of reference should include skins and trophies likewise every bit meat. Suggested countries for such experts to visit are Dahomey and Ghana by tribal hunters, locally), Uganda (especially the Queen Elizabeth Park hippo cropping scheme), Republic of kenya (the Galena scheme), Tanzania (the Serengeti area), Zambia (the Luangwa valley project and the copper belt market), Southern Rhodesia (the private European ranch schemes and the eland domestication scheme) and the Transvaal (several examples from the thousands of private farms utilizing game commercially as well several of the Transvaal nature reserve cropping schemes). Although these countries were selected to give a perspective of meat marketing, an investigation of the markets for skins and other products in the same areas would too provide a useful perspective.

Improving techniques for producing a salable healthy product

The dissemination of information relating to proved and uncomplicated techniques for preserving meat and making it marketable would be welcomed by technicians responsible for developing utilization projects. Preservation techniques are themselves important subjects for practical research. Particularly useful would exist further development of smoking, drying, cooling, freezing, brining, tinning and sterilizing techniques and methods for the production of meat powder. The economic advantages of large-scale installations are recognized, and it is felt that the impetus for large-scale evolution will somewhen come from large commercial firms such every bit are already becoming established in the Transvaal, Southern Rhodesia and Uganda.

In the meantime, the small-scale operator such equally an African District Council meets a top priority demand, for it is at this level that the adoption or maintenance of sensible state-use trends is nearly urgently required. Wherever possible, exterior help would emphasize the evolution of adjustable and mobile installations which are as well simple and inexpensive, such every bit, for example, those that can be constructed from local textile. The successful functioning of these installations should require fiddling special training or experience.

Another urgent priority is to develop some practical means of exploiting the overpopulation of large mammals that has acquired crisis situations in many areas.

The solution of the meat preservation problem requires 1 or two experts with special abilities in the technique of meat preservation to work for a period of at to the lowest degree one twelvemonth in close collaboration with a marketing specialist and with various utilization schemes in operation in east, key and southern Africa. The objective should exist to obtain a perspective of the simplified meat preservation techniques already in utilize - including their uses and limitations - and to recommend either improvements in existing procedures or the adoption of other more suitable methods.

Preparation of shins. The preparation of skins is besides important because the loss in value from skins being rejected or downgraded due to inadequate training amounts to many thousands of dollars each year. Although publications are bachelor which outline the best methods of the preparing hides and skins, there is a demand for a more simplified presentation specially of the simple steps involved between the freshly killed carcass and the delivery of a dried skin at the nearest store or collecting depot. For case, an improvement in the quality of skins could exist expected over large areas past the brandish of specially designed illustrated posters at stores where the skins are purchased.

Capture and sale of live animals. On a continental basis the capture and sale of wild birds and mammals is a vast and assisting undertaking, as is evidenced in several of the African Special Project country reports. There are few countries that do not allow the sale and export of birds and mammals. There are, likewise, few countries where information technology is like shooting fish in a barrel to locate almanac export and sale figures. This is usually due to a combination of factors, chief of which are: lack of coordination between different government departments in supervising this activity, lack of fairly enforced laws prohibiting the illegal sale and consign of alive animals, and differences in auction and consign regulations between next countries.

Many problems arise in connection with the sale and export of alive birds and mammals. In widely separated parts of Africa different countries are concerned with the excessively high bloodshed of certain captured animals, or the transmission of disease, or the export of rare species. Aside from these immediate problems in that location is the long-term question of the effect on the existing population of the removal of present numbers of live animals.

With these considerations in mind it is suggested that the greatest initial contribution toward placing this type of utilization on a sound basis would be the organisation of an international meeting either as a technical session of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) or equally a special coming together under other auspices. The purpose of the meeting would be to, highlight the international problems involved in the capture and export of birds and mammals, and the need for increased international co-ordination of control regulations governing the export and import of alive animals.

Conflicts with other forms of country use

Examples of important wild animals problems involving conflicts with other forms of land utilise are ingather damage, competition with domestic animals for nutrient, and the exchange of affliction between wild and domestic animals. Of these, the question of disease is at present of the highest priority and is field of study to considerable controversy in various parts of Africa, with extremists taking sides either entirely with domestic animals, or entirely favoring wild animals. Fifty-fifty the extremists, still, acknowledge that great ignorance characterizes the subject of wild every bit opposed to domestic beast diseases, and this is a field where research is urgently required.

Because of the vested interests which are constitute on both sides of the controversy, it is suggested that a solution might best be offered by an international system sponsoring a inquiry team with headquarters at an appropriate African university. It is farther suggested that initially a small squad of two or 3 qualified veterinarians, with experience of the different aspects of the wildlife versus domestic creature disease question, be sent to a selected number of countries to report on the present state of knowledge of wild fauna diseases versus cattle diseases in Africa. It would be the responsibility of this squad to consider the feasibility of the creation of a research found in Africa which should include within its terms of reference research on diseases common both to wild and domestic animals.

Ideally, such enquiry would be centered on a university, then that a completely independent and objective approach to this controversial problem could be maintained.

Every bit the extent to which wild and domestic animals commutation diseases becomes ameliorate defined, the applied implications can be expected to be important enough to require farther ecologically oriented investigations in order to translate this knowledge into practical systems of management. Information technology is suggested, therefore, that research on wildlife diseases be closely associated with studies of the ecology of both wild and domestic animals, as these studies develop in African universities or research centers.

Domestication of wild animals

Although non a pregnant form of utilization now, the domestication of animals at present wild has a potential significance that makes the field of study worth mentioning here.

Of the many animals domesticated for curt periods of time in diverse parts of Africa, the primary ones take been elephant, cape buffalo, zebra and eland; and of these the eland shows the most promise (Riney, 1961). A small herd of eland has been kept for several years by an agricultural officer in Southern Rhodesia, and interesting figures on growth and breeding have already been published (Posselt, 1963).

Effigy 3. - The eland promises to be one of the most important wild species for domestication. The 2 eland shown, below are part of a group of 16 eland that averaged over one pound a twenty-four hour period gain in weight during their first two years of life. In this same area, in the same two years and with like treatment, large numbers of cattle either died of starvation or were transported to other areas as a relief mensurate.

This is a useful evolution, providing it can be administered on a standing basis and providing the research is oriented toward achieving results with the broadest implications outside the boundaries of Southern Rhodesia. Such an objective might best be ensured by employing a biologist and field supervisor for a menstruation of three years to increment the scope of the demonstration by forming several pocket-sized sit-in herds and to initiate research into the uses and limitations of the eland as a domestic fauna in tsetse-occupied areas and in other habitats at present marginal to cattle. It is further suggested that at least one of these herds be adult in a tribal area in Brachystegia woodland in Zambia. If the latter development could be conducted past Africans, it would have important and widespread application to other parts of Africa.

Effigy 4. - A stock-raiding leopard being released in Serengeti national park. The importance of wildlife, insofar as it competes with other forms of land use, is an important subject for study and inquiry in Africa.

Projects of value to all aspects of developing wild fauna resources

In addition to special aid designed to quicken the evolution of the various types of utilization, several kinds of assistance would exist useful in a more full general way and would ultimately influence almost of the suggested lines of development mentioned above. Four examples of such types of projects are:

1. preparation (a) at university level and (b) at medium-grade level;

two. inquiry on life histories of big mammals with priority attention to the species (a) principally used in utilization schemes or (b) those in danger of extinction;

3. preparation of a revised check-list of African mammals;

iv. grants to help with the publication of work already completed or well avant-garde.

Of these iv types of projection the final two could probably exist handled without pregnant expenditure of international funds. For example, the training of a checklist could exist most conveniently washed by IUCN forwarding a asking to an advisable museum or a museum clan. This action was in fact initiated in the last quarter of 1963. Grants to help with the publication of already accomplished research would seem a logical and valuable type of assistance for private fund granting organizations to consider. Also important is the need to translate widely applicative works from English language into French, and vice versa.

The other ii projects, those for training and research, are important plenty to demand special accent in terms of continental needs.

Training

Academy level

There are 10 universities in Africa s of the Sahara and north of Due south Africa which are potential locations for the development of advanced training for wildlife biologists and technicians. These are: the Academy of Salisbury, Southern Rhodesia; the iii parts of the Academy of Due east Africa, located at Dar es Saalam, Nairobi and Kampala; two universities in Nigeria, at Ibadan and Nsukka; the Academy of Dakar, Senegal; the National Agricultural School of the University of Yaoundé, Cameroon; the University of Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, and the University of Khartoum, Sudan. Of these, four appear specially suitable as deserving priority for support in such training programs; they are in Kenya, Cameroon, and Nigeria.

Of all universities in Africa, that at Nairobi is situated nearest to hands observed populations of big ungulates and to a considerable variety of easily studied habitats. It is also located close to excellent agricultural, forestry and veterinary research institutes which accept a demonstrated active interest in wild fauna research and which already have specialist reference libraries. The zoology and veterinary departments of this university take already combined to prepare a curriculum and research unit of measurement in Nairobi park for the study of large mammals.

The Federal Academy of Yaoundé appears to be the all-time-situated university in French-speaking Africa for the inclusion of large mammal studies, for in Cameroon one finds a greater spectrum of wild fauna than in any other African state. Forestry preparation has already started on a pocket-sized scale and the curriculum already includes conservation of fauna and flora. This school is a logical centre for the expansion of wild animals grooming considering it is ideally situated near related research institutes and government departments interested in forestry and wildlife resources.

Ii universities in Nigeria - at Ibadan and Nsukka - are interested in the development of training in wild animals. The Ibadan university is already including wildlife in the schoolhouse curriculum. Interest in incorporating mammal environmental and training, and research in wild fauna management is certainly worth encouraging in both of these universities, and consideration should be given to arranging for ane expert to spend alternate periods between both Nigerian universities.

The type of assist envisaged for the four universities in Kenya, Cameroon, and Nigeria is to arrange for a senior research fellow to be appointed for a menstruation of three years. It is suggested that his responsibilities would be primarily to help integrate a wild animals curriculum with other biological training and to initiate wild animals research specially designed to run into the priority needs of the major areas served by the university. This aforementioned inquiry fellow should too exist in a position to aid with the evolution of such medium-grade grooming as is appropriate for the university and countries involved, and to supervise the work of such student research fellowships as may go bachelor. It is estimated that for a three-twelvemonth menstruum, about i third of the research fellow's salary would be required for travel equipment and expenses, although this amount would probably be college in Cameroon.

Medium-grade level

Medium-form training involves educational activity in the making of practical decisions on the direction of the wildlife resource. Because of national differences in the students' levels of education, in the types of assistants responsible for wildlife, and in the present stage of evolution of the wildlife resource, the nature of the medium-grade training job differs for each country. Ultimately, advisable training can be accomplished either by integrating wildlife training within the national organisation of technical teaching, by creating special wild-life training centers, past the development of inservice training, or past some combination of them.

A medium-class school for the preparation of English language-speaking technicians has already been started near Moshi in Tanzania and will shortly be expanded and strengthened by a United Nations Special Fund Projection. Some other medium-class training school is needed for French-speaking countries and a like project is existence negotiated with the Republic of cameroon Government.

Apart from these longer term projects at that place is an immediate applied need to get some level of training distributed quickly over as wide an area in Africa every bit possible. The proposition here proposed is the germination of regional curt-term workshops to train cadres to initiate some appropriate form of in-service training in their own countries. More specifically the short-term regional workshop in wildlife training is suggested as the nigh suitable means of:

(a) achieving some mensurate of management technique past existing staff over the widest possible areas of Africa;

(b) encouraging the start of in-service preparation by training the local officers responsible for in-service training;

(c) promoting an international commutation of ideas initially on a regional basis.

Information technology is suggested that the series of seminars or workshops (like to the nutrition seminars operating nether the Freedom from Hunger Campaign) should exist oriented around the integration of wildlife with the evolution of other renewable natural resources in pastoral and marginal lands in Africa, and should emphasize techniques and special problems of direction in national parks and game reserves, in hunting and in utilization schemes. Included in the curriculum should be a review of the uses and limitations of systems of in-service training already started in diverse parts of Africa.

Initially, ii seminars of 3 or four weeks should be considered, one in French- and one in English language-speaking Africa. To these seminars should come land representatives, either responsible for, or best in a position to develop medium-grade preparation in their own land.

Information technology is further suggested that the timing of these seminars should follow the production of a working field handbook to facilitate non but the pedagogy of cadres at the initial seminars but to help the cadres in their efforts to take appropriate initial steps toward starting their own national inservice preparation programs.

The seminars should be followed by several demonstration in-service training courses in different parts of Africa, the countries selected to represent the greatest possible variety of types of responsible government organizations and social and ecological conditions. At the terminate of this catamenia, which should be completed within two years, it would be useful to reassess the medium-grade training needs for wildlife conservation in Africa.

African universities and priorities for basic research

Ii types of inquiry in this field are advocated for universities in diverse parts of Africa. There are:

1. studies of life histories of species of African mammals designed to include detailed information on habitat requirements;

2. exploitation of easily obtained materials from utilization schemes and tsetse operations.

Emphasis is here placed on learning minimum and optimum habitat requirements.

There is already sufficient show in Africa to show that, on a long-term basis, changes in habitat are the near powerful of all factors for increasing or decreasing populations of wildlife. Research into the minimum and optimum habitat requirements of large African mammals is therefore of import for the ultimate solution of practical wildlife problems a, they arise in cultivated, pastoral, wood or marginal lands, or in parks and reserves. The importance of an increased understanding of habitat requirements is every bit important for all these aspects of wild animals utilization.

The immediate practical research objectives already discussed depend on major problems important for each unlike type of wildlife utilization; all these are practical ways of increasing the rate of evolution of the wildlife resource. However, minimum and optimum habitat requirements will eventually have to be understood in order to accomplish the nearly effective management of the resource, merely every bit a knowledge of site requirements for diverse trees is indispensable not just in selecting appropriate tree species but to achieve the maximum development of the timber resource in a given expanse.

Biologists cannot recommend specific techniques for producing the greatest number of the greatest multifariousness of African mammals on a permanent ground only because the minimum and optimum habitat requirements are just known for few large African mammals. Ignorance of the minimum habitat requirements for nearly all rare or threatened species adds still some other menace to their beingness. Combinations of large mammals can be recommended for certain marginal or wild lands that will produce more than tons of meat per foursquare mile than the best known type of domestic fauna direction plan when applied to the same area. This is based, however, on the crudest blazon of understanding. For instance, a harvest of 10 percent is often recommended, while many species may prove to sustain a 20 percentage annual harvest or more. The critical elements of the habitat and the proportions of these elements that must exist maintained to sustain permanent optimum conditions for any type of utilization scheme have withal to be learned.

A better knowledge of habitat requirements is likewise necessary to increase understanding of the limitations of several techniques already normally used in population studies. For example, the extent to which a population of animals is in balance, or is below or in a higher place the conveying capacity of the surroundings, makes a great departure to the way that age ratios and condition indices are interpreted (Riney, 1963), and tin be expected to exist of import in the interpretation of the incidence of certain diseases. Merely to decide the carrying capacity for a given species 1 must be able to have some measure out of at least the major elements of the habitat used past the species in question. For most of the large African mammals this information is lacking.

FIGURE five. - A well-organized elephant-cropping scheme in Kenya. Such ad hoc methods have made a good beginning for utilization programs in several African countries, but much more than practical enquiry work is needed to increase nowadays margins of profit.

There are, therefore, certain very important types of enquiry requiring much more than attempt than a curt-term survey can provide. It is suggested that the universities mentioned in a higher place are in the best position to carry forward this longer term blazon of inquiry

The granting of special research scholarships is proposed every bit an interim means of contributing to these long-term needs. An appropriate system would exist for each of the senior wild animals enquiry fellows mentioned to supervise ii or three graduate students, the latter supported by research scholarships. If, to avoid unnecessary duplication of effort, the senior research scholars keep in touch through correspondence, there is every reason to hope that within 5 years most of the basic information needed for the direction of several primal species and their habitats should exist available.

Another major contribution that universities tin can brand is to exploit (while they last) those basic enquiry opportunities associated with tsetse and other control programs, and with utilization and hunting schemes. This type of enquiry seems ideally suited to universities, for short periods of time in the field lead to rapid accumulation of valuable material. Furthermore, numbers of students can participate, both as research assistants and as an integral role of their training. This type of contribution is not expensive as information technology merely involves the cost of the fellowships, vehicles and running expenses. Appropriate laboratory facilities already exist at the universities mentioned in a higher place.

The need for an international wild animals organisation

If the principle is accepted whereby the international assist-administering organisation has equally 1 of its aims the successful completion of projects to develop the wildlife resources as an integral function of evolution programs of African countries, and so the procedure logically becomes a affair of:

one. sorting out priority needs;
ii. finding advisable men to practise the jobs;
three. designing the projects.

In this way it volition be possible to maximize the extent to which these projects may exist useful locally and stimulate continuing effort by the respective governments. Although the nowadays report has outlined priority needs, this is but the first footstep.

Information technology is suggested that to be effective this procedure requires the full-time services of a small wild fauna staff within the framework of the Un. Since at that place is a shortage of men suitable and available for dealing with more than a small proportion of fifty-fifty the urgent needs, the bodily program must exist a compromise. The twenty-four hour period-to-twenty-four hour period practical arroyo will probably involve designing projects with the co-functioning of the most suitable available experts; assigning priority emphasis within the framework of some general statement of needs and aims, either as submitted above or as otherwise determined by the administering United Nations agency; and co-operating (in the planning stage wherever possible) with local governments or other external organizations with a view to making local administration and management, and extension and grooming services, aware of the most significant practical implications of the piece of work accomplished past grants in aid.

References

POSSELT, J. 1963. The domestication of the eland, Rhodesian J. of Agric. Inquiry 1 (2): 81-88.

RINEY, T. 1961. The international importance of African wild-life, Unasylva xv (2): 76-80.

RINEY, T. 1964. The touch on of introductions of large herbivores on the tropical environment, IUCN. New Series (4): 261-273.

RINEY, T. and KETTLITZ, West. L. 1964. Management of large mammals in the Transvaal, Mammalia 28 (2): 189-248.

Participants at the opening in Washington D.C. of a preparation course and study tour on forest burn down command practices and methods

Participants at the opening in Washington D.C. of a training course and study tour on forest burn down control practices and methods. This class, for the benefit of 28 trainees from 15 countries, WAS held in July and August in the Usa of America (Southern States, California, Oregon and Montana) and Canada (Ontario and Quebec), under arrangements made betwixt FAO, the United States Forest Service, the Canadian Woods Section, and the United States Agency for International Development (US/AID). Seated at the table (left to right) are 5. L. Harper, Deputy Chief, Us Woods Service; R. Westward. Kitchen, Managing director of International Training, Assistance, F. P. Cliff, Main, United States Forest Service: Due north. A. Osara, Director of FAO's Forestry and Woods Products Division, and A. A. Brown, Technical Manager of the study tour in the United states of america.

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Source: https://www.fao.org/3/18587E/18587e07.htm

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